Manage the conditions that shape decisions.

1. Distinguish threats, errors, and undesired states

A threat increases operational complexity but is not necessarily caused by the crew: weather, traffic, time pressure, equipment malfunction, unfamiliarity, or runway change. An error is an action or omission that creates a deviation. An undesired aircraft state is the resulting condition—unstable energy, wrong configuration, path deviation, or loss of situational awareness. The purpose of threat and error management is to interrupt the chain early.

2. Treat attention as a limited resource

High workload narrows attention. Low workload can reduce vigilance. Fixation occurs when one task absorbs attention while other cues are missed. Countermeasures include verbalizing priorities, using checklists at the correct time, distributing tasks, setting timers or reminders, and deliberately returning to the flight path after programming or troubleshooting.

3. Recognize predictable bias

Confirmation bias favors information that supports the existing plan. Plan-continuation bias makes changing course feel like failure. Recency and availability can overemphasize the last event remembered. The practical defense is to ask what evidence would make the current plan unacceptable and to define that trigger before commitment increases.

4. Use personal readiness as operational data

Illness, medication, stress, alcohol, fatigue, hydration, nutrition, and emotion affect performance. A self-assessment is useful only if it can change the plan. Fatigue deserves particular attention because tired people may underestimate their impairment while reaction time, working memory, communication, and monitoring deteriorate.

5. Communicate to build a shared picture

Effective crew resource management makes intent, risk, and uncertainty visible. Use specific language: state the observation, the concern, the consequence, and the requested action. Closed-loop communication confirms that the message was heard and understood. Rank and experience should not prevent a safety concern from being raised.

6. Preserve a reversible option

A strong decision keeps at least one safe alternative available: delay, divert, go around, reduce complexity, request assistance, or stop the operation. The earlier a decision is made, the more options usually remain. A go-around or diversion is not evidence of poor planning; it may be the planned response to a predefined condition.